Light pollution: Is there an Environmental Kuznets Curve?

Highlights

• We apply the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis to local light pollution.

• We analyse the possible linkage between economic development and light trespass/nuisance on a local level.

• Our results show no statistical significance between the two variables.

• We recommend that local light pollution policies be equally strigent in all areas regardless of economic status.

Abstract

Light pollution is ranked high among recent forms of environmental degradation. While there have been many studies focusing on the diverse effects of artificial lighting on human health, wildlife, etc., studies related to the social-economic impact of light pollution have been neglected. In the current paper, we assessed the relationship between economic development and light pollution. Using collected field data of illuminance levels as a measure of light pollution and land prices as an indicator of economic development, we drew conclusions about the effects of economic development on light pollution. The results did not show an inverted-U relationship between the two variables, hence denouncing the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) theory. A regression analysis test showed an R-squared value of 0.322 at p > 0.215. Looking at the obtained results, which show no statistical significance between the two variables, we advise that local light pollution regulation laws and policies be equally stringent throughout districts/cities, regardless of economic status.

Introduction

The expansion in the usage of electric lighting and the improper design of lighting fixtures have led to increased light pollution. While it is a new form of environmental degradation, light pollution is already causing critical concerns. In general, light pollution occurs in five different ways: glare – unneeded high brightness lighting that could lead to visual impairment, over-illumination – high lighting levels that are beyond those perceived by the human eye, light clutter – excessive or poor grouping of light sources, light trespass/nuisance – lighting that is projected into an area where it is neither needed nor wanted, and sky glow - a phenomenon during which light projected into the sky is reflected by atmospheric matter and increases sky brightness as a result.

In Korea, research dealing with artificial lighting and its adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem as a whole has gained momentum. In 2013, a light pollution law aimed at curbing and mitigating the effects of light pollution was enacted (Cha et al., 2014). During the process, light pollution in many different parts of Korea was measured and quantified. It was then observed that more economically stable neighborhoods had slightly improved, or even overwhelmingly improved, lit environments than low-income neighborhoods. This observation matched a similar notion that draws linkages between economic growth and environmental degradation such as the emission of air pollutants. These notions are the basis of the Kuznets hypothesis (Kuznets, 1955), which postulates that there is an inverted-U relationship between income inequality and economic development. Later, the hypothesis was extended to the environment by Grossman and Krueger (1994), questioning whether there was a relationship between income per capita and environmental degradation. Subsequently, a sizeable number of studies on the matter followed, and the term “Environmental Kuznets Curve” (EKC) was coined (Panayotou, 1993). The logic behind EKC is quite simple. It assumes that, in the first stage of industrialization, pollution increases rapidly due to a large amount of material input for production processes, and people’s higher concern for securing jobs than for a clean environment. However, in the later stages of industrialization, incomes rise, and people start to care and take notice of their environment, regulatory institutions are given a voice, and subsequently, pollution levels are reduced. Both current and previous studies on the EKC hypothesis have focused on many pollutants such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and environmental quality indicators such as water quality and deforestation. However, light pollution has somehow been neglected. Until now, there has only been a single study (Gallaway et al., 2010) that indicated the possible relationship between light pollution and income on a global level. Although the study confirmed the existence of the EKC relationship between light pollution and income, studies dealing with other pollutants have often indicated contradictory results between EKC on a large level, such as between countries, and EKC on a small level, such as between districts or cities.

Therefore, we aimed to statistically determine the relationship, if any, between the economic status of Korean neighborhoods and light pollution. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that has dealt with light pollution and economic status at such a minute level. It is also important to note that the current study solely deals with the light trespass/nuisance element of light pollution and not the others. We hope that the results obtained in this study will influence and assist policy makers when dealing with the issue of light pollution, especially on local levels.