Research articleCollision and displacement vulnerability to offshore wind energy infrastructure among marine birds of the Pacific Outer Continental Shelf
Introduction
Offshore wind energy development is a promising alternative energy source for coastal communities in the Western United States. The U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) has recently considered renewable energy proposals within U.S. Pacific Outer Continental Shelf (POCS) waters off the coast of Oregon and California (Trident Winds LLC, 2016). Minimizing negative interactions of offshore wind energy infrastructure (OWEI) with marine species is an important step towards a sustainable offshore energy future (Musial and Ram, 2010). Marine bird species are among the most threated species of birds, due in part to their exposure to cumulative anthropogenic threats including fisheries bycatch, pollution, habitat loss, and invasive species at terrestrial nesting grounds (Croxall et al., 2012). The construction of OWEI could pose additional threats for marine birds including collision with infrastructure and/or displacement from important foraging, resting, and commuting habitats.
Herein, we quantified population, collision, and displacement vulnerability to OWEI for 81 marine bird species common to the California Current System portion of the POCS (i.e., not including Hawaii). The California Current System ecologically defines this marine region where these species breed, forage, and/or over-winter (Checkley and Barth, 2009, Fig. 1). The vulnerability values generated for these 81 marine bird species were based on species' life history traits, population sizes, demography, habitat use, disturbance sensitivity, and conservation status. The vulnerability values generated in this assessment can be used by resource managers to evaluate potential impacts associated with the construction and long-term operation of OWEI within the POCS.
This assessment was inspired by similar studies that evaluated bird vulnerability to OWEI in the North Sea and eastern Atlantic Ocean (Desholm, 2009, Furness and Wade, 2012, Furness et al., 2013, Garthe and Hüppop, 2004), and western Atlantic Ocean (Robinson Willmott et al., 2013). Herein, we update these methodologies based on our current understanding of OWEI impacts on marine birds and provide the first vulnerability assessment of the POCS species assemblage. Unlike previous assessments in Europe, but similar to the Robinson Willmott et al. (2013) assessment of the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf, our assessment precedes OWEI development in the POCS and proactively facilitates planning that could minimize negative interactions between marine birds and OWEI in this region.
Section snippets
Species selection
In this assessment, we included all marine birds that occur regularly in the POCS (Appendix Table A1). The list of species considered was generated from aerial at-sea surveys (Adams et al., 2014, Briggs et al., 1981, Briggs et al., 1983, Briggs et al., 1987, Briggs et al., 1992; Mason et al., 2007), plus additional species known to be present (e.g., Black Skimmer [Rynchops niger], Tufted Puffin [Fratercula cirrhata], Yellow-billed Loon [Gavia adamsii], Hawaiian Petrel [Pterodroma sandwichensis
Vulnerability calculations
We quantified three types of vulnerability among seabirds in the POCS: Population Vulnerability (PV), Collision Vulnerability (CV), and Displacement Vulnerability (DV; Table 1). For all metrics used in the PV, CV, and DV calculations, we searched available literature to determine appropriate values for each species. When available literature sources provided conflicting data, we gave preference to the most relevant source (e.g., the study that had been done within the region, most recently,
Spatial vulnerability calculations
To provide a spatial example of cumulative species vulnerability to OWEI, we applied vulnerability values to at-sea species distributions to evaluate spatial variability in seabird vulnerability at sea off southern California (the southern portion of the POCS). We used seasonally-averaged seabird density data collected from offshore Cambria, CA to the California-Mexico border (Mason et al., 2007; Takekawa et al., 2008). Nine at-sea aerial surveys were completed from 1999 to 2002, with three
Results
The best-estimate Population, Collision, and Displacement Vulnerability values for each species are shown in Table 3. The species-specific metric values used to calculate these three vulnerability values are listed in Adams et al. (2017) (Equations (1), (2), (3)), Table 3, Fig. 2).
Discussion and conclusions
Herein, we provided the first quantification of marine bird vulnerability (collision, displacement, and population) to potential OWEI for the POCS. As OWEI construction started to increase significantly in Europe, quantification of collision and displacement of marine wildlife to OWEI was identified as a conservation priority (Bailey et al., 2014). As the U.S. also increases offshore renewable energy production, it is important to understand potential wildlife interactions with OWEI in U.S.
Authors' contributions
DP and JA conceived the study and methodology. JA and EK generated the species list and compiled literature sources. JA, EK, JF, and MC generated calculations and fine-tuned methods. EK generated the database and calculated the vulnerability values. JF and EK did the spatial analysis. JA and EK led the writing of the manuscript.
Funding
This work was supported by the BOEM Pacific Outer Continental Shelf Regional Office [NSL-PC-12-01].
Data accessibility
Adams, J., Kelsey, E.C., Felis, J.J., and Pereksta, D.M., 2017, Data for calculating population, collision and displacement vulnerability among marine birds of the California Current System associated with offshore wind energy infrastructure (ver. 2.0, June 2017): U.S. Geological Survey data release, http://doi.org/10.5066/F79C6VJ0.
Takekawa, J. Y., W. M. Perry, J. Adams, L. L. Williams, J. L. Yee, D. L. Orthmeyer, J. W. Mason, G. J. McChesney, W. R. McIver, H. R. Carter, and R. T. Golightly.
Acknowledgements
Dr. David G. Ainley was supported by USGS-WERC non-competitive procurement #0040045878 with HT Harvey and Associates, San Jose, California, to compile a comprehensive analysis of seabird flight height associated with winds over the ocean; results of their flight height analyses are presented in Ainley et al. (2015). The authors appreciate review and constructive advice provided by S. Garthe, H. Wade, E. Masden, M. Hutchins, A. Cook, N. Pettorelli, R. Fuller, and an anonymous reviewer for the
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