Key Points
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Regions of extrastriate cortex, including the fusiform and superior temporal gyri, are activated by biologically salient stimuli, such as faces and biological motion stimuli.
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A set of structures serves to modulate cognition and behaviour on the basis of the motivational properties of stimuli. This set includes the amygdala, the ventral striatum and the orbitofrontal cortex.
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Reasoning about, volitional guidance of, and self-regulation of social behaviour draws on regions of the brain that represent emotional response and actions, and that integrate goals with behaviour. These include right somatosensory cortices, the left frontal operculum and anterior cingulate cortices.
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Pathological social behaviour is seen in diseases ranging from autism to psychopathy. Although most such disorders are heterogeneous in etiology, the amygdala and prefrontal cortex have been implicated in their development.
Abstract
We are an intensely social species — it has been argued that our social nature defines what makes us human, what makes us conscious or what gave us our large brains. As a new field, the social brain sciences are probing the neural underpinnings of social behaviour and have produced a banquet of data that are both tantalizing and deeply puzzling. We are finding new links between emotion and reason, between action and perception, and between representations of other people and ourselves. No less important are the links that are also being established across disciplines to understand social behaviour, as neuroscientists, social psychologists, anthropologists, ethologists and philosophers forge new collaborations.
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Acknowledgements
I am greatly indebted to critiques by T. Heatherton, E. Phelps, A. Atkinson and A. Heberlein. To the best of my knowledge, T. Heatherton coined the term 'social brain sciences' that I have used in this article. Supported by grants from the NIH, the Klingenstein Fund and the James S. McDonnell Foundation.
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- COGNITIVELY IMPENETRABLE
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Processes that are not influenced strategically by cognition. They cannot be influenced at will, and their engagement is beyond our control.
- SELF-REGULATION
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The ability to control one's behaviour effortfully and often in opposition to emotional drive (for example, controlling an anger outburst). Most prominent in adult humans, self-regulation depends on regions in the prefrontal cortex.
- MORAL EMOTIONS
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Guilt, shame, embarrassment, jealousy, pride and other states that depend on a social context. They arise later in development and evolution than the basic emotions (happiness, fear, anger, disgust, sadness) and require an extended representation of oneself as situated within a society. They function to regulate social behaviours, often in the long-term interests of a social group rather than the short-term interests of the individual person.
- MODULES
-
Functional and/or anatomical components that are relatively specialized to process only certain kinds of information. Modules were originally thought of as cognitively impenetrable and informationally encapsulated (having restricted access to only certain information). Although most people do not view modules in such strict terms, there is evidence of domain-specific processing that is specialized for specific ecological categories (such as faces and social contract violations), although there is debate on this issue.
- EVENT-RELATED POTENTIALS
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(ERPs). Electrical potentials that are generated in the brain as a consequence of the synchronized activation of neuronal networks by external stimuli. These evoked potentials are recorded at the scalp and consist of precisely timed sequences of waves or 'components'.
- MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY
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(MEG). A non-invasive technique that allows the detection of the changing magnetic fields that are associated with brain activity, similar to the detection of changing electric fields measured by ERPs.
- CATEGORIZATION
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Stimulus categories function to group together stimuli to which a similar behavioural response should be mounted. Coarse, generic categorization (for example, a dog as an animal) is superordinate; subordinate categorization includes basic-level (a dog as a dog) and unique categories (a dog as your own pet).
- ANIMACY
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The subjective impression that a stimulus is alive.
- AGENCY
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The subjective impression of a willful, goal-directed action.
- POINT-LIGHT DISPLAYS
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Visual motion stimuli created by attaching small lights to an actor's body joints and filming the person moving in an otherwise dark room. Although they seem random when static, the biological motion of the lights immediately generates the compelling perception of a person moving about the room.
- BLINDSIGHT
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The ability of a person with a lesion in the primary visual cortex to reach towards or guess at the orientation of objects projected on the part of the visual field that corresponds to this lesion, even though they report that they can see nothing in that part of their visual field.
- NEGLECT
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A neurological syndrome (often involving damage to the right parietal cortex) in which patients show a marked difficulty in detecting or responding to information in the contralesional field.
- REAPPRAISAL
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Reinterpretation of a situation to assign it a different value. Whereas reappraisal changes emotional response by changing one's perception of the stimulus, other strategies of self-regulation directly modulate emotional response despite one's original perception.
- POLYMORPHISM
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The simultaneous existence in the same population of two or more genotypes in frequencies that cannot be explained by recurrent mutations.
- NEOTENY
-
The retention of juvenile characteristics in the adults of a species.
- ALEXITHYMIA
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Cognitive disturbance that is characterized by the difficulty in describing one's own emotions.
- WASON SELECTION TASK
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The most popular experimental design for probing deductive reasoning. It consists of a conditional statement, the truth of which the subject must decide. Typically, conditionals about social rules, threats and promises all show a facilitation in the proportion of logically correct choices, and it has been argued that humans evolved a specialized skill to detect deception in the context of social contracts (for example, cheating).
- SOMATIC MARKERS
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Emotional states that are triggered during the consideration of potential future outcomes of choices.
- WILLIAMS SYNDROME
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A genetic condition caused by a deletion on chromosome 7 that is characterized by an unusually social personality, limited spatial skills and motor control, and mental retardation. Patients with the disease also have heart problems, hypercalcaemia, kidney abnormalities, sensitive hearing and musculoskeletal problems.
- TURNER SYNDROME
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A genetic disease in which females carry only one healthy X chromosome. It is characterized by an inhibition of sexual development and is accompanied by infertility. There is some evidence from patients with Turner syndrome for the existence of an imprinted X-linked locus that affects social cognition.
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Adolphs, R. Cognitive neuroscience of human social behaviour. Nat Rev Neurosci 4, 165–178 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1056
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1056
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