Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Harvesting for food versus feed: a review of Peruvian fisheries in a global context

  • Reviews
  • Published:
Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Peru is the top exporter of fishmeal and fish oil (FMFO) worldwide and is responsible for half and a third of global production, respectively. Landings of “anchoveta” (Engraulis ringens) are used nearly exclusively for FMFO production, despite a proactive national food policy aimed at favoring the direct human consumption of this inexpensive species. It may be surprising that in a country where malnutrition and caloric deficit constitute major issues, a low-priced and highly nutritious fish such as anchovy does not have stronger domestic demand as a food fish. Here, we review and assess eight potential politico-socio-economic processes that can explain this situation. The main explanation are dietary habits, the preference for broiler and the higher profit from anchovy sold as feed fish compared to its use as a food fish due to historically high FMFO prices, boosted by an increasing demand for aquaculture in a context of finite forage and trash fish resources. In addition, the recent introduction of an individual quota system has shifted bargaining power from processors to fishers, thereby increasing competition for the raw material. This competition results in an increase in anchovy prices offered by the feed fish industry due to its onshore processing overcapacity, which is detrimental to the food fish industry. In the end, although the dominant use of anchovy for fish feed is largely explained by integrating these market mechanisms and other minor ones, this use raises other issues, such as rent redistribution through public policies, employment, equitability and utility (low social costs), and resource management (threats to ecosystems or global change). Different policy scenarios are proposed in relation to these issues.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The reasons people declared for not consuming anchovy in 2000 were as follows: 1) it is difficult to obtain (32 %); 2) it is mostly for rich people (19 %); and 3) it is too expensive (19 %); note that the two last reasons obviously refer to only to some sophisticated products such as cured or canned fish packed with additional ingredients. When consumers are asked to describe the cons of anchovy they mention the organoleptic properties (21 %, including the presence of many fine bones that make fish ingestion painful, 12 %); however, in the list of pros, flavor—another organoleptic property—comes first (19 %), followed by nutritional value (17 %) (FAO 2012).

  2. The average Free On Board (FOB) price is a weighted average of Fair Average Quality (FAQ) and Prime fishmeal according to sales.

  3. The value of 40 % results from 8.5 % × 4.2 × 1.11, with 8.5 % being the proportion of the fishmeal price paid to fishers, 4.2 being the conversion rate of raw fish to fishmeal and 1.11 being the rising factor for total direct production costs (1/.9).

  4. Fishmeal and fish oil prices per ton are about the same (Online Resource 1; Fig. S6), but the mean annual conversion factor of raw fish into fishmeal is around 4.2:1, whereas for fish oil, it varies from 15:1 to 40:1, according to fish fat content.

  5. The regulation specifies that the non-European country must be listed in accordance with Article 11 of Regulation (EC) 854/2004 for the import of fishery products and that the whole production chain, including fishing vessels and the raw materials, must comply with the EU requirements.

  6. Locally nicknamed “Olympic race”.

  7. Although the regulation of this second type of use has been recently enforced for small-scale fishery landings (Supreme Decrees 002-2010- and 005-2012, PRODUCE).

References

  • Alexandratos N (1999) World food and agriculture: outlook for the medium and longer term. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:5908–5914

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Antúnez de Mayolo S (1997) Procesamiento y conservación de alimentos en el antiguo Perú. Tecnol aliment 3(5):24–29

    Google Scholar 

  • AO F (2003) The ecosystem approach to fisheries. FAO Tech Guidel Resp Fish 4(2):112

    Google Scholar 

  • Aranda M (2009) Developments on fisheries management in Peru: the new individual vessel quota system for the anchoveta fishery. Fish Res 96:308–312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Asche F, Tveterås S (2004) On the relationship between aquaculture and reduction fisheries. Am J Agr Econ 55(2):245–265

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Asche F, Oglend A, Tveterås S (2013) Regime shifts in the fish meal/soyabean meal price ratio. J Agr Econ 64(1):97–111

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bertrand S, Diaz E, Ñiquen M (2004) Interactions between fish and fisher’s spatial distribution and behaviour: an empirical study of the anchovy (Engraulis ringens) fishery of Peru. ICES J Mar Sci 61:1127–1136

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bradford GE (1999) Contributions of animal agriculture to meeting global human food demand. Livestock Prod Sci 59:95–112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown LR (1997) Facing the prospect of food scarcity. In: Brown LR, Flavin C, French H (eds) State of the World. WW Norton Ltd, New York, pp 23–41

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown LR (2001) Eco-economy: building an economy for the earth. WW Norton Ltd, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Cury P et al (2011) Global seabird response to forage fish depletion—One-third for the birds. Science 334:1703–1706

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daly HE, Farley J (2011) Ecological economics: principles and applications, 2nd edn. Island Press, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (2011a) The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2010. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1820e/i1820e.pdf. Accessed 15 Oct 2013

  • FAO (2011b) Panorama of Food and Nutrition Security in Latin America and the Caribbean 2011. 20 p http://www.rlc.fao.org/fileadmin/content/publicaciones/pfnslac2011_en.pdf. Accessed 15 Oct 2013

  • FAO (2011c) Investigación de Mercado sobre hábitos y costumbres en el consumo de productos pesqueros en la Provincia de castrovirreyna - Huancavelica; FAO Project GCP/PER/044/SPA (June 2011)

  • FAO (2012) Promoción del consumo de pescado en apoyo al programa de seguridad alimentaria en poblaciones de bajos ingresos en la república del Perú. FAO TCP/PER/2084

  • Farfan OH (2005) Understanding and escaping commodity-dependency: a global value chain perspective. The World Bank Group, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Fréon P, Bouchon M, Mullon C, García C, Ñiquen C (2008) Interdecadal variability of anchoveta abundance and overcapacity of the fishery in Peru. Progr Oceanogr 79:401–412

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fréon P, Werner F, Chavez F (2009) Conjectures on future climate effects on marine ecosystems dominated by small pelagic fish. In: Checkley D, Roy C, Alheit J (eds) Predicted effects of climate change on SPACC systems. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 312–343

    Google Scholar 

  • Fréon P, Bouchon M, Domalain G, Estrella C, Iriarte F, Lazard J, Legendre M, Quispe I, Mendo T, Moreau Y, Nuñez J, Sueiro JC, Tam J, Tyedmers P, Voisin S (2010) Impacts of the Peruvian anchoveta supply chains: from wild fish in the water to protein on the plate. GLOBEC Int Newsletter 16(1):27–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia SM, Rosenberg AA (2010) Food security and marine capture fisheries: characteristics, trends, drivers and future perspectives. Phil Trans R Soc B 365:2869–2880

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gereffi G (1994) The organization of buyer-driven global commodity chains: how US retailers shape overseas production networks. In: Gereffi G, Korzeniewicz M (eds) Commodity chains and global capitalism. Greenwood Press, Westport, pp 95–122

    Google Scholar 

  • Gillet N (2008) Global study of shrimp fisheries. FAO Fish Tech Pap 475:331

    Google Scholar 

  • Gutiérrez D, Sifeddine A, Field D, Ortlieb L, Vargas G, Chávez F, Velazco F, Ferreira V, Tapia P, Salvatteci R, Boucher H, Morales M, Valdés J, Reyss J-L, Campusano A, Boussafir M, Mandeng-Yogo M, García M, Baumgartner T (2009) Rapid reorganization in ocean biogeochemistry off Peru towards the end of the Little Ice Age. Biogeosciences 6:835–848

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hasan MR, Halwart M (eds) (2009) Fish as feed inputs for aquaculture: practices, sustainability and implications. FAO fisheries aquaculture technical paper, vol 518, p 407

  • IFFO (2012) http://www.iffo.net/. Accessed 15 Oct 2013

  • INEI (2013a) Condición de vida en el Perú. Bol Inst Nac Estad Inform 3:69

    Google Scholar 

  • INEI (2013b) Encuesta nacional de hogares. http://www.inei.gob.pe/estadisticas/indice-tematico/sociales/. Accessed 15 Oct 2013

  • INEI (2013c) Encuesta Demográfica y de Salud Familiar 2012. http://proyectos.inei.gob.pe/endes/2012/. Accessed 15 Oct 2013

  • INEI-PNUD (2013) Evolución de los indicadores de los objetivos de desarollo del Milenio al 2011. http://www.unfpa.org.pe/InfoEstadistica/2013/EvolucionIndicadores/index.html. Accessed 15 Oct 2013

  • Iriarte Ahón F (2011) Propuesta pesquera para ayudar a la seguridad alimentaria. Pesca 123:70–72

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson JBC, Kirb MX, Berher WH, Bjorndal KA, Botsford LW, Bourque BJ, Bradbury RH, Cooke R, Erlandsson J, Estes JA, Hughes TP, Kidwell S, Lange CB, Lenihan HS, Pandolfi JM, Peterson CH, Steneck RS, Tegner MJ, Warner RR (2001) Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science 293:629–638

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kent G (1997) Fisheries, food security, and the poor. Food Policy 22(5):393–404

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kristofersson D, Anderson JL (2006) Is there a relationship between fisheries and farming? Interdependence of fisheries, animal production and aquaculture. Mar Policy 30(6):721–725

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leitch I, Godden W (1941) The efficiency of farm animals in the conversion of feeding stuffs to food for man. Imperial Bur An Nutr, Rowett Inst, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, Scotland Tech Comm 14:64

  • Lopez Ríos J (2010) El mercado de productos pesqueros en la cuidad de Iquitos. INFOPESCA Serie, El mercado de pescado en las grandes ciudades latinoamericanas ISSN, pp 1688–7085

    Google Scholar 

  • Maximixe (2013) Informes de Estructura y Tendencias de Mercado 2013 http://www.maximixe.com/ie/mercados.php. Accessed 15 Oct 2013

  • Meier GM, Stiglitz JE (eds) (2001) Frontiers of development economics: the future in perspective. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Naylor RL, Goldburg RJ, Primavera JH, Kautsky N, Beveridge MCM, Clay J, Folke C, Lubchenco J, Mooney H, Troell M (2000) Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies. Nature 405:1017–1024

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naylor RL, Hardy RW, Bureau DP, Chiu A, Elliott M, Farrell AP, Forster I, Gatlin DM, Goldburg RJ, Hua K, Nichols PD (2009) Feeding aquaculture in an era of finite resources. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106(36):15103–15110

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paredes CE (2010) Reformando el Sector de la Anchoveta Peruana Progreso Reciente y Desafíos Futuros. Instituto del Perú, Lima

    Google Scholar 

  • Paredes CE (2012) Eficiencia y equidad en la pesca peruana: la reforma y los derechos de pesca. Report to the Consorcio de Investigación Económica y Social (CIES): 111

  • Paredes CE, Gutierrez M-E (2008) La industria anchovetera peruana: costos y beneficios. World Bank Rep, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson CH, Lubchenco J (1997) On the value of marine ecosystems to society. In: Daily GC (ed) Nature’s Services. Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems. Island Press, New York, pp 177–194

    Google Scholar 

  • Ponte S (2002) The ‘Latte Revolution’? Regulation, markets and consumption in the global coffee chain. World Dev 30(7):1099–1122

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • PRODUCE (2011) Anuario estadístico 2010 http://www2.produce.gob.pe/RepositorioAPS/1/jer/ANUARIO_ESTADISTICO/anuario-estadistico-2011.pdf. Accessed 15 Oct 2013

  • PROMPERU (2011) Desenvolvimiento del comercio exterior pesquero: informe anual 2010. PROMPERU, Lima

    Google Scholar 

  • Rana KJ, Siriwardena S, Hasan MR (2009) Impact of rising feed prices on aquafeeds and aquaculture production. FAO fisheries aquaculture technical paper 541: 63

  • Reardon T, Timmer CP, Barrett CB, Berdegué J (2003) The rise of supermarkets in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Am J Agr Econ 85:1140–1146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson AJ, Bakun A, Hays GC, Gibbons MJ (2009) The jellyfish joyride: causes, consequences and management responses to a more gelatinous future. Trends Ecol Evol 24:312–322

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sen A (1981) Ingredients of famine analysis: availability and entitlements”. Quart J Econ 96(3):433–464

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smil V (2002) Worldwide transformation of diets, burdens of meat production and opportunities for novel food proteins. Enzym Microb Tech 30:305–311

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith MD, Roheim CA, Crowder LB, Halpern BS, Turnipseed M, Anderson JL, Asche F, Bourillon L, Guttormsen AG, Khan A, Liguori LA, McNevin A, O’Connor MI, Squires D, Tyedmers P, Brownstein C, Carden K, Klinger DH, Sagarin R, Selkoe KA (2010) Sustainability and global seafood. Science 327:784–786

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tacon AG, Metian M (2009) Fishing for feed or fishing for food: increasing global competition for small pelagic forage fish. Ambio 38(6):294–302

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tacon AGJ, Hasan MR, Metian M (2011) Demand and supply of feed ingredients for farmed fish and crustaceans: trends and prospects. FAO fisheries aquaculture technical paper 564: 87

  • Tveteras S, Tveteras R (2010) The global competition for wild fish resources between livestock and Aquaculture. J Agric Econ 61(2):381–397

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tveteras S, Asche F, Bellemare M, Smith M, Guttormsen AG, Lem A, Lien K, Vannuccini S (2012) Fish is food—The FAO’s Fish Price Index. PLoS ONE 7(5):e36731. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036731

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • UN-DESA (2009) World population to exceed 9 billion by 2050. Press release 11 Mar, 2009 http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/pressrelease.pdf Accessed 15 Oct 2013

  • Valdés J, Ortlieb L, Gutiérrez D, Marinovic L, Vargas G, Sifeddine A (2008) 250 years of sardine and anchovy scale deposition record in Mejillones Bay, Northern Chile. Progr Oceanogr 79:198–207

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Welch A, Hoenig R, Stieglitz J, Benetti D, Tacon A, Sims N, O’Hanlon B (2010) From Fishing to the sustainable farming of carnivorous marine finfish. Rev Fish Sci 18(3):235–247

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wijkström UN (2009) The use of wield fish as aquaculture feed and its effects on income and food for the poor and the undernourished. In: Hasan MR, Halwart M (eds) Fish as feed inputs for aquaculture: practices, sustainability and implications. fisheries aquaculture technical paper 518: 371-407

  • Wilkinson J (2006) Fish: a global value chain driven onto the rocks. Sociologia Ruralis 46(2):139–153

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This work is a contribution to the International Join Laboratory—Dynamics of the Humboldt Current system (LMI—DISCOH) coordinated by the Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) and the Instituto del Mar del Perú (IMARPE), and gathering several other institutions. The authors are grateful to Sylvestre Voisin (ARCANSYS), Catherine Domalain (University of Montpellier-I) and Carlota Estrella (formerly at IMARPE) for their earlier contributions, to Dr Sigbjorn Tveteras for his valuable input in some sections of the paper and to Melva Pazos (ITP) for her recent contribution.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. UMR 212 EME, CRHMT, IRD, Sète, France

    Pierre Fréon

  2. Centro para la Sostenibilidad Ambiental, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru

    Juan Carlos Sueiro

  3. I&A, Lima, Peru

    Federico Iriarte

  4. Universidad de Tumbes, Tumbes, Peru

    Oscar F. Miro Evar

  5. Universidad de Lima, Lima, Peru

    Yuri Landa

  6. Fishmeal Experts Office, Ville-d’Avray, France

    Jean-François Mittaine

  7. IMARPE, Callao, Peru

    Marilu Bouchon

Authors
  1. Pierre Fréon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Juan Carlos Sueiro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Federico Iriarte
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Oscar F. Miro Evar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Yuri Landa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Jean-François Mittaine
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Marilu Bouchon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Pierre Fréon.

Electronic supplementary material

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Fréon, P., Sueiro, J.C., Iriarte, F. et al. Harvesting for food versus feed: a review of Peruvian fisheries in a global context. Rev Fish Biol Fisheries 24, 381–398 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-013-9336-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-013-9336-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation