Abstract
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are produced by a broad range of organisms, from bacteria to mammals, and they represent a vast chemical diversity. In plants, one of the preeminent roles of VOCs is their repellent or cytotoxic activity, which helps the plant deter its predators. Most studies on VOCs emitted by vegetative parts have been conducted in model plant species, and little is known about patterns of VOC emissions in diverse plant communities. We conducted a survey of the VOCs released immediately after mechanical damage of the bark and the leaves of 195 individual trees belonging to 55 tropical tree species in a lowland rainforest of French Guiana. We discovered a remarkably high chemical diversity, with 264 distinct VOCs and a mean of 37 compounds per species. Two monoterpenes (α-pinene and limonene) and two sesquiterpenes (β-caryophyllene and α-copaene), which are known to have cytotoxic and deterrent effects, were the most frequent compounds in the sampled species. As has been established for floral scents, the blend of VOCs is largely species-specific and could be used to discriminate among 43 of the 55 sampled species. The species with the most diverse blends were found in the Sapindales, Laurales, and Magnoliales, indicating that VOC diversity is not uniformly distributed among tropical species. Interspecific variation in chemical diversity was caused mostly by variation in sesquiterpenes. This study emphasizes three aspects of VOC emission by tropical tree species: the species-specificity of the mixtures, the importance of sesquiterpenes, and the wide-ranging complexity of the mixtures.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
AGRAWAL, A. A. and FISHBEIN, M. 2006. Plant defense syndromes. Ecology 87:132–149.
AKHTAR, Y. and ISMAN, M. B. 2003. Binary mixtures of feeding deterrents mitigate the decrease in feeding deterrent response to antifeedants following prolonged exposure in the cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Chemoecology 13:177–182.
BAKKALI, F., AVERBECK, S., AVERBECK, D., and IDAOMAR, M. 2008. Biological effects of essential oils: a review. Food Chem. Toxicol. 46:446–475.
BANCHIO, E., ZYGADLO, J., and VALLADARES, G. R. 2005. Effects of mechanical wounding on essential oil composition and emission of volatiles from Minthostachys mollis. J. Chem. Ecol. 31:719–727.
BARALOTO, C., PAINE, C. E. T., PATINÕ, S., BONAL, D., HÉRAULT, B., and CHAVE, J. 2009. Functional trait variation and sampling strategies in species-rich plant communities. Funct. Ecol. in press.
BERENBAUM, M. and NEAL, J. J. 1985. Synergism between myristicin and xanthotoxin, a naturally cooccurring plant toxicant. J. Chem. Ecol. 11:1349–1358.
BORGES, R. M., BESSIÈRE, J.-M., and HOSSAERT-MCKEY, M. 2008. The chemical ecology of seed dispersal in monoecious and dioecious figs. Funct. Ecol. 22:484–493.
BOUVIER-BROWN, N. C., HOLZINGER, R., PALITZSCH, K., and GOLDSTEIN, A. H. 2007. Quantifying sesquiterpene and oxygenated terpene emissions from live vegetation using solid-phase microextraction fibers. J. Chrom. A 1161:113–120.
COLEY, P. D. and AIDE, M. T. 1991. Comparison of herbivory and plant defenses in temperate and tropical broad-leaved forests, pp. 25–49, in P. W. Price, T. M. Lewinsohn, G. W. Fernandes, and W. W. Benson (eds.). Plant–Animal Interactions: Evolutionary Ecology in Tropical and Temperate Regions. Wiley, New York.
DE MORAES, C. M., MESCHER, M. C., and TUMLINSON, J. H. 2001. Caterpillar-induced nocturnal plant volatiles repel conspecific females. Nature 410:577–580.
DUDAREVA, N., NEGRE, F., NAGEGOWDA, D. A., and ORLOVA, I. 2006. Plant volatiles: Recent advances and future perspectives. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 25: 417–440.
FINE, P. V. A., MILLER, Z. J., MESONES, I., IRAZUZTA, S., APPEL, H. M., STEVENS, M. H. H., SÄÄKSJÄRVI, I., SCHULTZ, J. C., and COLEY, P. D. 2006. The growth-defense trade-off and habitat specialization by plants in amazonian forests. Ecology 87:150–162.
FIRN, R. D. and JONES, C. G. 2003. Natural products, a simple model to explain chemical diversity. Nat. Prod. Rep. 20:382–391.
FRAENKEL, G. S. 1959. The raison d’etre of secondary plant substances. Science 129:1466–1470.
GERSHENZON, J. and DUDAREVA, N. 2007. The function of terpene natural products in the natural world. Nat. Chem. Biol. 3:408–414.
GOLS, R., WITJES, L. M. A., VAN LOON, J. J. A., POSTHUMUS, M. A., DICKE, M., and HARVEY, J. A. 2008. The effect of direct and indirect defenses in two wild brassicaceous plant species on a specialist herbivore and its gregarious endoparasitoid. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 128:99–108.
GREENBERG, J. P., GUENTHER, A. B., PETRON, G., WIEDINMYER, C., VEGA, O., GATTI, L. V., TOTA, J., and FISCH, G. 2004. Biogenic VOC emissions from forested Amazonian landscapes. Global Change Biol. 10:651–662.
GUENTHER, A. 2002. The contribution of reactive carbon emissions from vegetation to the carbon balance of terrestrial ecosystems. Chemosphere 49:837–844.
GUO, F. Q., HUANG, L. F., ZHOU, S. Y., ZHANG, T. M., and LIANG, Y. Z. 2006. Comparison of the volatile compounds of Atractylodes medicinal plants by headspace solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Anal. Chim. Acta 570: 73–78.
HARTMANN, T. 2007. From waste products to ecochemicals: Fifty years research of plant secondary metabolism. Phytochemistry 68:2831–2846.
HEIL, M. 2004. Direct defense or ecological costs: responses of herbivorous beetles to volatiles released by wild lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus). J. Chem. Ecol. 30:1289–1295.
HEIL, M. 2008. Indirect defence via tritrophic interactions. New Phytol. 178: 41–61.
JANZEN, D. H. 1970. Herbivores and the number of tree species in tropical forests. Am. Nat. 104:501–528.
JONES, C. G. and FIRN, R. D. 1991. On the evolution of plant secondary chemical diversity. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. 333:273–280.
KEELING, C. I. and BOHLMANN, J. 2006. Genes, enzymes and chemicals of terpenoid diversity in the constitutive and induced defence of conifers against insects and pathogens. New Phytol. 170:657–675.
KESSELMEIER, J. and STAUDT, M. 1999. Biogenic volatile organic compounds (VOC): An overview on emission, physiology and ecology. J. Atm. Chem. 33: 23–88.
KNUDSEN, J. T., ERIKSSON, R., GERSHENZON, J., and STAHL, B. 2006. Diversity and distribution of floral scent. Bot. Rev. 72, 1–120.
KÖLLNER, T. G., HELDB, M., LENK, C., HILTPOLD, I., TURLINGS, T. C. J., GERSHENZON, J., and DEGENHARDT, J. 2008. A maize (E)-b-caryophyllene synthase implicated in indirect defense responses against herbivores is not expressed in most American maize varieties. Plant Cell 20: 482–494.
KOVATS, E. 1958. Gas-chromatographische charakterisierung organischer verbindungen. teil 1: Retentionsindices aliphatischer halogenide, alkohole, aldehyde und ketone. Helv. Chim. Acta 41:1915–1932.
LEWINSOHN, T. M. and ROSLIN, T. 2008. Four ways towards tropical herbivore megadiversity. Ecology Lett. 11: 398–416.
LORD, H. and PAWLISZYN, J. 2000. Evolution of solid-phase microextraction technology. J. Chrom. A 885:153–193.
MATTIACCI, L., DICKE, M., and POSTHUMUS, M. A. 1995. B-Glucosidase: An elicitor of herbivore induced plant odor that attracts host-searching parasitic wasps. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92:2036–2040.
MAYER, V., SCHABER, D., and HADACEK, F. 2008. Volatiles of myrmecophytic Piper plants signal stem tissue damage to inhabiting Pheidole ant-partners. J. Ecol. 96:962–970.
MCKEY, D. 1979. The distribution of secondary compounds within plants, pp. 55–133, in G. A. Rosenthal and D. H. Janzen (eds.). Herbivores, Their Interactions with Secondary Plant Constituents. Academic, New York.
MIRESMAILLI, S., BRADBURY, R., and ISMAN, M. B. 2006. Comparative toxicity of Rosmarinus officinalis L. essential oil and blends of its major constituents against Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) on two different host plants. Pest. Manag. Sci. 62:366–371.
MITHÖFER, A., WANNER, G., and BOLAND, W. 2005. Effects of feeding Spodoptera littoralis on lima bean leaves. II. Continuous mechanical wounding resembling insect feeding is sufficient to elicit herbivory-related volatile emission. Plant Physiol. 137: 1160–1168.
MUMM, R. and HILKER, M. 2006. Direct and indirect chemical defence of pine against folivorous insects. Trends Plant Sci. 11:351–358.
NOVOTNY, V., DROZD, P., MILLER, S. E., KULFAN, M., JANDA, M., BASSET, Y., and WEIBLEN, G. D. 2006. Why are there so many species of herbivorous insects in tropical rainforests? Science 313:1115–1118.
OZEKI, A., HITOTSUYANAGI, Y., HASHIMOTO, E., ITOKAWA, H., TAKEYA, K., and DE MELLO ALVES, S. 1998. Cytotoxic quassinoids from Simaba cedron. J. Nat. Prod. 61:776–780.
PICHERSKY, E. and GERSHENZON, J. 2002. The formation and function of plant volatiles: perfumes for pollinator attraction and defense. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 5, 237–243.
RAGUSO, R. A. 2008. Wake Up and Smell the Roses: The ecology and evolution of floral scent. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 39:549–69.
ROUSSEEUW, P. J. 1987. Silhouettes: A graphical aid to the interpretation and validation of cluster analysis. J. Comput. Appl. Math. 20:53–65.
SUZUKI, R. and SHIMODAIRA, H. 2006. Pvclust: an R package for assessing the uncertainty in hierarchical clustering. Bioinformatics 22:1540–1542.
THOLL, D., BOLAND, W., HANSEL, A., LORETO, F., RÖSE, U. S. R., and SCHNITZLER, J. P. 2006. Practical approaches to plant volatile analysis. Plant J. 45: 540–560.
TURLINGS, T. C. J. and WÄCKERS, F. 2004. Recruitment of predators and parasitoids by herbivore-injured plants, pp 21–75, in R. T. Carde and J. G. Millar (eds.). Advances in Insect Chemical Ecology. Cambridge University.
VICKERS, C. E., GERSHENZON, J., LERDAU, M. T., AND LORETO, F. 2009. A unified mechanism of action for volatile isoprenoids in plant abiotic stress. Nat. Chem. Biol. 5:283–291.
WAJS, A., PRANOVICH, A., REUNANEN, M., WILLFÖR, S., and HOLMBOM, B. 2006. Characterisation of volatile organic compounds in stemwood using solid-phase microextraction. Phytochem. Anal. 17: 91–101.
WARD, J. H. 1963. Hierarchical grouping to optimize an objective function. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 58: 236–244.
WINK, M. 2003. Evolution of secondary metabolites from an ecological and molecular phylogenetic perspective. Phytochemistry 64:3–19.
WINK, M. 2006. Importance of plant secondary metabolites for protection against insect and microbial infections, pp 251–268, in M. Rai and M. Carpinella (eds.). Naturally Occurring Bioactive Compounds. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Acknowledgements
We thank all participants of the BRIDGE project, Antoine Stevens and the Institut Pasteur of French Guiana in Cayenne for providing laboratory facilities, Pascal Petronelli for help in the field, Julien Engel for help in the validation of the protocol, Bruno Buatois for providing the alkane blend, and Martine Hossaert-McKey, Kyle G. Dexter, A. E. Hagerman and two anonymous reviewers for useful comments at several stages of the writing of this manuscript. This work is a contribution of the BRIDGE project, funded by the Agence Nationale pour la Recherche (ANR-Biodiversité program).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendices
Appendix 1
SPME fiber exposure time for leaves and bark of each species
species code | Bark extraction (min) | Leaf extraction (min) |
D. surinamensis | 15 | 15 |
O. asbeckii | 15 | 15 |
U. perrottetii | 15 | 15 |
U. rufescens | 15 | 15 |
X. nitida | 15 | 15 |
I. hostmannii | 30 | 30 |
I. sagotiana | 30 | 30 |
V. michelii | 30 | 30 |
A. panurensis | 5 | 15 |
O. argyrophylla | 5 | 15 |
O. percurrens | 5 | 15 |
S. rubra | 5 | 15 |
M. decorticans | 30 | 15 |
R. albiflora | 30 | 30 |
C. glabrum | 30 | 30 |
H. glandulosa | 30 | 30 |
L. membranacea | 60 | 30 |
P. campestris | 60 | 30 |
R. madruno | 30 | 30 |
T. spB1 | 15 | 15 |
C. guianensis | 30 | 30 |
T. melinonii | 15 | 30 |
V. americana | 5 | 5 |
B. prouacensis | 30 | 30 |
P. villosa | 30 | 30 |
B. guianense | 30 | 30 |
A. spruceanum | 15 | 30 |
T. guianense | 15 | 15 |
T. puberulum | 15 | 15 |
D. nitens | 5 | 15 |
P. decandrum | 5 | 15 |
P. opacum | 5 | 15 |
P. sagotianum | 5 | 15 |
T. altissima | 5 | 15 |
T. panamensis | 5 | 15 |
C. procera | 30 | 30 |
C. scrobiculata | 15 | 15 |
S. cedron | 60 | 15 |
P. dolichocalyx | 30 | 30 |
S. pruriens | 30 | 30 |
T. subincanum | 30 | 30 |
A. glabra | 30 | 30 |
E. congestiflora | 30 | 15 |
E. coriacea | 30 | 15 |
L. persistens | 30 | 15 |
L. poiteaui | 30 | 30 |
C. argenteum | 30 | 30 |
M. egensis | 30 | 30 |
M. guyanensis | 30 | 30 |
P. gonggrijpii | 30 | 30 |
P. guianensis | 30 | 15 |
A. cruentum | 30 | 30 |
A. marcgravianum | 30 | 30 |
C. turbinata | 30 | 30 |
P. latifolia | 30 | 30 |
Appendix 2
Compounds tentatively identified. For each compound, the Kovats RI and the number of species that emits the compound is indicated. The compounds authenticated with standards are indicated by *.
classe | compound | RI | # species |
N_compound | 2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine | 1091 | 1 |
shikimic pathway | unknown S 1 | 1206 | 15 |
methyl salicylate | 1206 | 5 | |
1,4-dimethoxybenzene | 1249 | 1 | |
lipidic pathway (LP) | hexanal | 813 | 52 |
n-hexanol | 872 | 45 | |
(E)-2-hexenal | 863 | 41 | |
penten-3-ol | 741 | 38 | |
2-ethyl furan | 749 | 32 | |
(Z)-3-hexenol | 864 | 27 | |
unknown LP 1 | 733 | 20 | |
isopentyl alcohol | 768 | 16 | |
unknown LP 2 | 735 | 15 | |
octen-3-ol | 984 | 15 | |
3-octanone | 989 | 15 | |
unknown LP 3 | 854 | 14 | |
2-pentanone | 743 | 12 | |
penten-1-ol | 791 | 9 | |
3-pentanone | 749 | 7 | |
heptanal | 905 | 7 | |
hexyl hexanoate | 1386 | 7 | |
(E)-3-hexenol | 857 | 6 | |
1-pentanol | 769 | 5 | |
hexenyl acetate | 1014 | 5 | |
3-methyl-3-buten-1-ol | 757 | 4 | |
3-octanol | 1000 | 4 | |
hexenyl-3-methylbutanoate | 1231 | 4 | |
(Z)-2-hexenol | 872 | 3 | |
octanone | 989 | 3 | |
hexenyl butanoate | 1186 | 3 | |
octene | 800 | 2 | |
(E)-2-octen-1-al | 1066 | 2 | |
hexyl butanoate | 1192 | 2 | |
unknown LP 4 | 805 | 1 | |
unknown LP 5 | 909 | 1 | |
unknown LP 6 | 970 | 1 | |
hexenyl isobutanoate | 1142 | 1 | |
hexenyl isovalerate | 1236 | 1 | |
irregular terpene | 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one | 989 | 1 |
monoterpene | α-pinene * | 940 | 55 |
limonene * | 1034 | 53 | |
p-cymene | 1030 | 45 | |
β-pinene | 985 | 42 | |
3-carene | 1014 | 29 | |
β-myrcene * | 992 | 29 | |
α-phellandrene | 1011 | 28 | |
camphene | 958 | 26 | |
linalool * | 1103 | 20 | |
p-xylene | 881 | 19 | |
α-thujene | 932 | 18 | |
β-phellandrene | 1036 | 14 | |
β-terpinolene | 1089 | 14 | |
1,8-cineole | 1038 | 12 | |
α-terpinene | 1022 | 11 | |
γ-terpinene | 1062 | 11 | |
β-ocimene | 1049 | 10 | |
sabinene | 978 | 10 | |
o-xylene | 905 | 7 | |
iso-methoxythymol | 1241 | 6 | |
o-cymene | 1025 | 6 | |
Perilene | 1114 | 6 | |
tricyclene | 930 | 6 | |
delta-2-carene | 1002 | 5 | |
α-terpinolene | 1083 | 4 | |
cis-sabinene-hydrate | 1075 | 4 | |
terpinene-4-ol | 1188 | 4 | |
allo-ocimene | 1119 | 3 | |
linalool-oxide-trans | 1075 | 3 | |
unknown monoterpene 1 | 1173 | 3 | |
mentha-1-7(8)-diene | 1010 | 3 | |
p-cymenene | 1096 | 3 | |
verbenene | 986 | 3 | |
3p-menthene | 1000 | 2 | |
camphor | 1156 | 2 | |
carvacrol-methyl-ether | 1232 | 2 | |
(E)-β-ocimene | 1047 | 2 | |
mentha-2,8-diene | 1001 | 2 | |
thuja-2,4(10)-diene | 961 | 2 | |
thymol-methyl-ether | 1227 | 2 | |
(4E,6Z)-allo-ocimene | 1131 | 1 | |
α-terpineol | 1202 | 1 | |
campholenal | 1133 | 1 | |
cymen-8-ol | 1194 | 1 | |
linalool-oxide-cis | 1180 | 1 | |
linalool-oxide-dihydroxy | 1112 | 1 | |
unknown monoterpene 2 | 1047 | 1 | |
mentha-2,8-dienol | 1123 | 1 | |
myrtenal | 1204 | 1 | |
pinocarvone | 1170 | 1 | |
rose-furan-oxide | 1197 | 1 | |
trans-sabinene-hydrate | 1108 | 1 | |
sylvestrene | 1021 | 1 | |
trans-pinocarveol | 1149 | 1 | |
trans-verbenol | 1152 | 1 | |
(Z)-β-ocimene | 1035 | 1 | |
sesquiterpene | β-caryophyllene * | 1427 | 52 |
α-copaene | 1381 | 51 | |
α-humulene | 1462 | 45 | |
δ-cadinene | 1521 | 44 | |
germacrene D | 1487 | 41 | |
cyperene | 1412 | 40 | |
bicyclogermacrene | 1502 | 36 | |
allo-aromadendrene | 1467 | 35 | |
sesquithujene | 1393 | 35 | |
α-ylangene | 1375 | 34 | |
di-exo-T-cadinol | 1479 | 34 | |
γ-cadinene | 1518 | 33 | |
calarene | 1436 | 32 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 1 | 1393 | 32 | |
aromadendrene | 1445 | 31 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 2 | 1503 | 31 | |
α-cubebene | 1349 | 30 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 3 | 1502 | 30 | |
trans-calamenene | 1526 | 28 | |
δ-elemene | 1338 | 25 | |
β-humulene * | 1433 | 24 | |
bicyclo-elemene | 1335 | 24 | |
eremophyladiene | 1541 | 24 | |
α-selinene | 1496 | 21 | |
caryophyllene-oxide | 1592 | 21 | |
cis-cadina-1,4-diene | 1498 | 21 | |
γ-elemene | 1432 | 21 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 4 | 1350 | 21 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 5 | 1439 | 21 | |
α-cadinene | 1536 | 20 | |
β-bazzanene | 1529 | 20 | |
(Z)-α-bisabolene | 1509 | 19 | |
α-muurolene | 1507 | 18 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 6 | 1399 | 18 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 7 | 1435 | 18 | |
sesquithujene-7-epi | 1389 | 18 | |
gamma-selinene | 1479 | 17 | |
allo-aromadendra-4(15),10(14)-diene | 1455 | 16 | |
sesquiphellandrene | 1514 | 16 | |
african-2(6)-ene | 1361 | 15 | |
α-cedrene | 1416 | 15 | |
7-epi-α-cedrene | 1404 | 14 | |
α-guaiene | 1439 | 14 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 8 | 1450 | 14 | |
1-epi-α-pinguisene | 1370 | 13 | |
β-maaliene | 1417 | 13 | |
(Z)-β-farnesene | 1451 | 12 | |
β-bisabolene | 1503 | 12 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 9 | 1483 | 12 | |
viridiflorene | 1496 | 12 | |
anastreptene | 1370 | 11 | |
g-muurolene | 1480 | 11 | |
iso-carryophyllene | 1411 | 11 | |
rotundene | 1469 | 11 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 10 | 1327 | 11 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 11 | 1434 | 11 | |
β-calacorene | 1547 | 10 | |
β-curcumene | 1512 | 10 | |
| α-curcumene | 1484 | 9 |
δ-selinene | 1492 | 9 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 12 | 1500 | 9 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 13 | 1528 | 9 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 14 | 1547 | 9 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 15 | 1369 | 9 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 16 | 1405 | 9 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 17 | 1451 | 9 | |
β-cubebene | 1385 | 7 | |
β-selinene | 1490 | 7 | |
(Z,E)-α-farnesene | 1488 | 6 | |
β-elemene | 1385 | 6 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 18 | 1325 | 6 | |
spathulenol | 1585 | 6 | |
trans-cadina-1,4-diene | 1538 | 6 | |
7-epi-α-selinene | 1534 | 5 | |
α-longipinene | 1358 | 5 | |
β-barbatene | 1458 | 5 | |
β-bourbonene | 1390 | 5 | |
β-ylangene | 1424 | 5 | |
cadina-3,5-diene | 1454 | 5 | |
calameren-9-ol | 1555 | 5 | |
cis-calamenene | 1532 | 5 | |
cuparene | 1517 | 5 | |
gorgonene | 1446 | 5 | |
hinesene | 1528 | 5 | |
muurolol | 1603 | 5 | |
oppositadiene | 1393 | 5 | |
presilphiperfolene | 1312 | 5 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 19 | 1507 | 5 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 20 | 1443 | 5 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 21 | 1425 | 5 | |
α-gurjunene | 1413 | 4 | |
β-acoradiene | 1472 | 4 | |
bourboneral | 1555 | 4 | |
cadinene-ether | 1570 | 4 | |
γ-curcumene | 1480 | 4 | |
guaiadiene | 1407 | 4 | |
maali-1,3-diene | 1351 | 4 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 22 | 1530 | 4 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 23 | 1420 | 4 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 24 | 1449 | 4 | |
selina-4,7-diene | 1513 | 4 | |
striatene | 1461 | 4 | |
trans-cubebol | 1514 | 4 | |
(E)-β-farnesene | 1461 | 3 | |
aromadendra-4,10(14)-diene | 1442 | 3 | |
cadina-1(10),6-diene | 1461 | 3 | |
epi-α-muurolol | 1655 | 3 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 25 | 1455 | 3 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 26 | 1484 | 3 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 27 | 1458 | 3 | |
| α-alaskene | 1514 | 2 |
α-cadinol | 1666 | 2 | |
α-santalene | 1423 | 2 | |
bourbon-11-ene | 1429 | 2 | |
brasiladiene | 1336 | 2 | |
cubenol | 1624 | 2 | |
cyclo-bazzanene | 1523 | 2 | |
cyperadiene | 1358 | 2 | |
dendrolasine | 1576 | 2 | |
epi-α-cadinol | 1654 | 2 | |
gamma-guaiene | 1511 | 2 | |
isoledene | 1378 | 2 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 28 | 1457 | 2 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 29 | 1523 | 2 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 30 | 1437 | 2 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 31 | 1328 | 2 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 32 | 1389 | 2 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 33 | 1509 | 2 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 34 | 1533 | 2 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 35 | 1443 | 2 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 36 | 1444 | 2 | |
selina-4,11-diene | 1482 | 2 | |
(3E,6Z)-α-farnesene | 1481 | 1 | |
5-epi-aristolochene | 1476 | 1 | |
african-2,6-diene | 1345 | 1 | |
α-cuprenene | 1555 | 1 | |
α-duprezzianene | 1389 | 1 | |
β-chamigrene | 1534 | 1 | |
β-vetivene | 1536 | 1 | |
brasila-1(6),5(10)-diene | 1436 | 1 | |
cadalene | 1635 | 1 | |
calamenol | 1550 | 1 | |
cymene-2,5-dimethoxy-para | 1415 | 1 | |
(E)-γ-bisabolene | 1529 | 1 | |
epistolene | 1393 | 1 | |
erythrodiene | 1447 | 1 | |
2-epi-α-funebrene | 1419 | 1 | |
germacrene B | 1567 | 1 | |
iso-bicyclogermacrene | 1489 | 1 | |
pacifigorgia-1(9),10-diene | 1385 | 1 | |
pacifigorgia-2,10-diene | 1431 | 1 | |
palustrol | 1581 | 1 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 37 | 1462 | 1 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 38 | 1493 | 1 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 39 | 1577 | 1 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 40 | 1585 | 1 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 41 | 1422 | 1 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 42 | 1334 | 1 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 43 | 1343 | 1 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 44 | 1496 | 1 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 45 | 1424 | 1 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 46 | 1448 | 1 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 47 | 1329 | 1 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 48 | 1506 | 1 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 49 | 1420 | 1 | |
unknown sesquiterpene 50 | 1423 | 1 | |
sesquicineole | 1516 | 1 | |
veltonal | 1595 | 1 | |
widrene | 1441 | 1 |
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Courtois, E.A., Paine, C.E.T., Blandinieres, PA. et al. Diversity of the Volatile Organic Compounds Emitted by 55 Species of Tropical Trees: a Survey in French Guiana. J Chem Ecol 35, 1349–1362 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-009-9718-1
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-009-9718-1