Equine behaviour: I. A review of the literature on social and dam—Foal behaviour

doi:10.1016/0304-3762(83)90138-4

Applied Animal Ethology

Volume 10, Issue 3, May 1983, Pages 165-178

https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3762(83)90138-4 Get rights and content

Abstract

In most cases, the social organisation of each of the seven species of Equidae existing today outside captivity is either territorial or non-territorial. The striking differences found between these two types of organisation in the social grouping and bonds, mating behaviour, leadership and dominance hierarchies of the animals are examined. It is thought that the non-territorial species show a less primitive type of organisation than the territorial animals.

Infant Equidae are precocious animals and are able to follow their dams soon after birth. They stay close by their dams and travel with the herd from an early age and are therefore classified as “followers”, in contrast to the species which have a period of hiding after birth. Dams recognise their foals immediately after birth, whereas it takes 2 or 3 days for a foal to form an attachment to its dam. Being in close proximity to their dams, foals are able to nurse frequently and, unless artificially weaned, a foal will nurse until its dam foals again.

Foals start to graze during their first week and as they grow older they spend more time grazing and less time nursing and resting. It is normal for foals to be corprophagic until one month old, and this provides them with bacteria essential for the digestion of fibre. Play behaviour is solitary in very young foals, but after 4 weeks of age, foals play together, with male foals playing more than females and showing more aggressive, fighting movements in play.

References (106)

G.W. Arnold et al.
Ethogram of agonistic behaviour for thoroughbred horses
Appl. Anim. Ethol.
(1982)
M.R.A. Chance
Social structure of a colony of Macaca mulatta
Br. J. Anim. Behav.
(1956)
P. Duncan et al.
The effect of group size in horses on the rate of attacks by blood-sucking flies
Anim. Behav.
(1979)
A.F. Fraser
Fetal kinesis and a condition of fetal inertia in equine and bovine subjects
Appl. Anim. Ethol.
(1977)
A.F. Fraser
The ontogeny of behaviour in the foal (abstract)
Appl. Anim. Ethol.
(1980)
A.F. Fraser et al.
An exploratory ultrasonic study on quantitative foetal kinesis in the horse
Appl. Anim. Ethol.
(1975)
K.A. Houpt et al.
Dominance hierarchies in domestic horses
Appl. Anim. Ethol.
(1978)
R.P. Powell
Early post-natal behaviour in the Camargue foal (abstract)
Appl. Anim. Ethol.
(1978)
P.D. Rossdale
Clinical studies on the newborn thoroughbred foal. I. Perinatal
behaviour. Br. Vet. J.
(1967)
R.E. Salter et al.
Social organization of feral horses in western Canada
Appl. Anim. Ethol.
(1982)

V.R. Squires et al.

Leadership and dominance relationships in Merino and Border Leicester sheep

Appl. Anim. Ethol.

(1975)

E.L. Taylor

Grazing behaviour and helminthic disease

Br. J. Anim. Behav.

(1954)

O. Antonius

On the geographical distribution in former times and today of the recent Equidae

Arab Horse Society, 1981. Personal...

M. Archer

Grazing patterns of horses

Br. Vet. J.

(1977)

K. Baintner et al.

Studies on the products of fermentation in the faeces of foals

Allatenyesztes

(1971)

Ju.N. Barmincev

Breeding horses for milk under conditions in Kazakhstan

Abstract in Anim. Breed. Abstr.

(1960)

J. Berger

Organisational systems and dominance in feral horses in the Grand Canyon

Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol.

(1977)

H. Blauvelt

Dynamics of the mother newborn relationship in goats

Group Processes

(1954)

H. Bouwman et al.

Composition and production of milk from Dutch warmblooded saddle horse mares

Z. Tierphysiol. Tierernaehr. Futtermittelkd.

(1978)

V. Boy et al.

Time-budgets of Camargue horses. I. Developmental changes in the time budgets of foals

Behav.

(1979)

British Horse Society, 1979. Personal...

K. Carson et al.

The nursing behaviour of thoroughbred foals

Equine Vet. J.

(1983)

A.G. Champion

T.H. Clutton-Brock et al.

Ranks and relationships in Highland ponies and Highland cows

Z. Tierpsychol.

(1976)

L. Collery

The sexual and social behaviour of the Connemara pony

Br. Vet. J.

(1969)

L. Collery

Observations of equine animals under farm and feral conditions

Equine Vet. J.

(1974)

J.E. Cox

Some observations on an orphan foal

Br. Vet. J.

(1970)

P. Duncan

Time budgets of Camargue horses. II. Time budgets of adult horses and weaned sub-adults

Behaviour

(1980)

H. Ebhart

Verhaltensweisen von Islandpferden in einem nordeutschen Freigelande

Saugetierk. Mitt.

(1954)

J.D. Feist

Behaviour of feral horses in the Pryor Mountain Wild Horse Range

J.D. Feist et al.

Reproduction in feral horses

J. Reprod. Fertil., Suppl.

(1975)

J.D. Feist et al.

Behaviour patterns and communication in feral horses

Z. Tierpsychol.

(1976)

K. Francis-Smith

The nursing behaviour of foals

K. Francis-Smith

Studies on the feeding and social behaviour of domestic horses

K. Francis-Smith et al.

Coprophagia as seen in thoroughbred foals

Equine Vet. J.

(1977)

A.F. Fraser

Reproductive Behaviour in Ungulates

A.F. Fraser

Farm Animal Behaviour

(1974)

A.F. Fraser

The appraisal of vital behaviour in the neonate foal

S. Gates

A study of the home ranges of free-ranging Exmoor ponies

Mammal Rev.

(1979)

S.A. Glendinning

A system of rearing foals on an automatic calf machine

Equine Vet. J.

(1974)

S.A. Glendinning

The behaviour of sucking foals

Br. Vet. J.

(1977)

G. Grizmek

Rangordnungversuche mit Pferden

Z. Tierpsychol.

(1949)

W. Gyr

The behaviour of cattle

E.L. Haag et al.

Avoidance, maze learning and social dominance in ponies

J. Anim. Sci.

(1980)

K.A. Houpt

Horse behaviour: its relevancy to the equine practitioner

J. Equine Med. Surg.

(1977)

K.A. Houpt

A plea for behavioural studies of domestic animals

K.A. Houpt et al.

The position of the stallion in equine social organisation

J. Anim. Sci.

(1982)

K.A. Houpt et al.

The stability of equine hierarchies and the prevention of dominance-related aggression

Equine Vet. J.

(1980)

K.A. Houpt et al.

The effect of management practices on horse behaviour

Cited by (48)

Which affiliative behaviour can be used as a valid, reliable and feasible indicator of positive welfare in horse husbandry?
2024, Applied Animal Behaviour Science
To date, the suitability of affiliative behaviours for inclusion in a horse welfare assessment protocol has not been thoroughly studied. This is surprising, given the growing focus on demonstrating the presence of positive welfare rather than just the absence of poor welfare. This shift is driven by the recognition that simply avoiding negative experiences does not necessarily equate to a positive welfare state, and that there is more to good welfare than just the absence of disease, injury or stress. Thus, we critically reviewed the current scientific literature to propose quantitatively assessed animal-based indicators that indicate positive welfare and could therefore be incorporated in a welfare assessment protocol for horses. Amongst the candidate indicators that have previously been associated with positive welfare in horses are socio-positive interactions between horses, such as affiliative activities consisting of social proximity, social play and social grooming. These activities must meet the scientific quality criteria regarding validity, reliability and feasibility to enable an objective assessment of positive animal welfare. However, the current review showed that social play and social grooming amongst adult horses under husbandry conditions are not sufficiently valid indicators. These two affiliative behaviours would meet the requirement for validity only in combination with a differential diagnosis considering the absence of, for example, the stress caused by space restriction. Furthermore, social play and social grooming amongst adult horses may not fulfil the requirement for feasibility, because these behaviours occur rarely and unpredictably throughout the day, hindering their assessment within a limited observation time. As a result of this literature review, we suggest that social proximity may be the only suitable affiliative behaviour indicating positive welfare in adult horses. It best reflects the social bond with preferred partners - a key element for experiencing positive welfare. This affiliative behaviour has been investigated thoroughly in various sport and leisure horse housing systems regarding all three scientific quality criteria. It satisfies the validity criterion because to be counted as a socio-positive interaction, social proximity must be achieved voluntarily whereby the term ‘voluntary social proximity’ may best fit this requirement. Notably, it also fulfils the reliability and feasibility criteria in terms of good inter-observer agreement given a standardised assessment method including parameters such as distance between horses, duration and context. Thus, social proximity seems to be a promising indicator of positive welfare in horses.
Apgar Score, Clinical, Hemato-Biochemical, and Venous Blood Gas Parameters in a Cohort of Newborn Mule Foals: Preliminary Data
2023, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science
The study aimed to assess Apgar scores and collect data on clinical, hemato-biochemical, and venous blood gas parameters in seven mules during their first 48 hours of life. Apgar scores, heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (RR), body temperature (BT), body weight (BW), time to achieve sternal recumbency, stand, nurse, and pass meconium were recorded. Blood samples were collected at birth (T0), 6 (T6), 12 (T12), 24 (T24), 48 (T48) hours of life. Data distribution was verified and differences in laboratory parameters over time assessed. One foal had an Apgar score of 6/8, thus excluded from the statistical analysis. Three foals had an Apgar score of 7/8, three had a score of 8/8. All foals showed suckling reflex within 20 minutes and raised the head within 1 minute; six foals reached sternal recumbency within 2 minutes. Times to stand and nurse were 38.7 ± 13.4 and 72.3 ± 30.5 minutes, respectively. Five foals passed meconium spontaneously in 416.3 ± 401.8 minutes. The mean HR, RR, and BT values were 92 ± 16.1 bpm, 50.2 ± 5.9 bpm, and 37.6 ± 0.3°C, respectively. Creatinine and lactate decreased from birth to 48 hours. Blood glucose increased from 12 hours. Mg increased from 12 to 24 hours. Compared to horses and donkeys, mules showed an intermediate BW, shorter time to stand and nurse, longer time to pass meconium, intermediate HR and lower RR. Compared to donkey mules showed lower BT. Other dissimilarities from the parental species were found in laboratory parameters. Our findings emphasize the need for reference ranges for a comprehensive evaluation of newborn mules.
Influence of workload and weather conditions on rolling behaviour of horses and mules
2021, Behavioural Processes
We evaluated the influences of workload intensity, bath handling and environmental conditions in the rolling behaviour of horses and mules. For this purpose, animals were observed after being exposed to different levels of workload and the rolling behaviour was recorded and described. During all testing procedures, the weather condition (temperature and humidity) was registered by a Black globe and Wet Bulb apparatus. Horses frequently rolled after intense exercise and after bath handling, independently of the weather condition. Mules frequently rolled after control (no exercise) and intense exercise in warmer and wetter days and after bath handlings in colder and drier days. Rolling behaviour characteristics were slightly different between species. While mules exhibited more frequently the behaviours of rest, self-care, yawn, tail swishing, complete spins, snort vocalization and use of the same spot to roll, horses exhibited more frequently the behaviours of paw, sniff, head and neck rubbing movements and incomplete spins to the right and left. This findings evidence that rolling is an important and frequently exhibited behaviour by domestic horses and mules, but animals may express it differently and may have their own motivations. In this sense, we believe that domestic equines, mainly those raised in more intensive livestock, should have the opportunities to freely express the rolling, as a way to improve their welfare conditions and with agreement with a more rational handling practice.
Foraging Behavior Development of Foals in Natural Grassland
2020, Rangeland Ecology and Management
Citation Excerpt :
Second, it is coherent with the result that the foals’ diet composition was significantly different from the vegetation. Indeed, exploring the food environment involves (Boy and Duncan 1979; Carson and Wood-Gush 1983) the consumption of a small amount of many food items, without consuming them in proportion to their abundance. Third, it explains the observed differences in diet composition among foals, as curiosity is a relatively random process that is not expected to lead to the same result between individuals.
Early relationships between young mammalian herbivores and social models (e.g., mothers or peers) have been proposed as playing a major role in the process of diet learning. Diet selection is an important factor influencing animal development and ecology, especially in natural and seminatural grasslands, with a large diversity of plant species. To explore the learning process of foraging behavior and diet selection choices by foals, six free-ranging Criollo foals and their respective mares were monitored through continuous bite monitoring from birth to 130 d old, in the Pampas Grasslands of southern Brazil. Cumulative suckling time decreased exponentially from birth to 130 d old, while dry matter intake, foraging time, and bite mass of foals increased continuously. It was possible to identify three marked periods in the foal’s foraging behavior development: 1) an exploratory phase (from 0 to 40 d old) marked by limited forage intake from a large diversity of plants; 2) a specialization phase (from 40 to 110 d old) with a marked increase in forage intake and a specialization around the same plants as the ones selected by the mares; and 3) a stabilization phase (after 110 d old) in which forage intake still increases but diet composition of foals stabilized similarly to the one of the respective mares. The higher diversity at young ages could be explained by exploratory hypothesis, where foals test different forages to discover their environment, given that their nutritional needs are fulfilled by milk consumption, not by forage intake. As requirements shift toward solid items, bite mass and foraging time increase and diet choices become similar to that of the mares. Our results detail how young foals develop their foraging behavior and suggest, without testing it and under the circumstances of this study, that they learn their diet through social transmission from their mothers.
Maternal protectiveness in feral horses: responses to intraspecific and interspecific sources of risk
2020, Animal Behaviour
In most mammalian species, mothers must protect offspring from multiple sources of risk. In Australia, feral horses, Equus ferus caballus, have naturalized in many ecosystems, and foals are at risk from both predation by dingoes and sexually selected infanticide by nonpaternal stallions. This study tested maternal responses to these two forms of risk: risk of predation through dingo call playbacks and infanticide risk through a comparison of maternal protectiveness of foals in single- and multistallion bands. Mares were more vigilant and spent more time close to foals in bands with multiple resident stallions, where there is a higher risk of infanticide, relative to bands with a single stallion. Dominant stallions spent more time close to foals following the dingo call playbacks, indicating that stallions may play an important role in detecting and protecting foals from interspecific sources of risk. There was no significant increase in maternal protectiveness in response to dingo call playbacks, indicating that mares did not perceive dingo calls to be an immediate threat to foals. While predators were present, infanticide risk appeared to be the most significant modifier of maternal behaviour in this study.
A two-stage method to approach weaning stress in horses using a physical barrier to prevent nursing
2016, Applied Animal Behaviour Science
Many domestic horses are weaned through abrupt physical separation of the foal and mare. Deviations from normal behaviours testify that this abrupt method has an adverse effect on the well-being of both mares and foals. To reduce negative changes in behaviour and physiology induced by weaning, a two-stage approach was tested: the first stage achieved nutritional separation by means of an udder cover to prevent nursing, and the second stage of physical separation occurred four days later. Behaviours (standing, walking, running, eating, drinking, nursing, aggressing, vocalizing) of mares and foals weaned either by abrupt physical separation (control; n = 8), or two-stage (TS; n = 7) were recorded in real time for 8 h/d, and triaxial accelerometers recorded lying time of mares and foals 24 h/d. Heart rates and global position were recorded on foals during live observations, and fecal samples from mares and foals were collected for cortisol analysis. Behavioural and physiological data were analyzed using a mixed model for repeated measures. No treatment effect was observed in foals, however physical separation induced an increase in vocalizations (0.3 ± 0.13 versus 56.9 ± 39.3 vocalizations/foal/d ± SEM; p < 0.0001), observations of running (0.31 ± 0.08 versus 3.2 ± 0.25 observations/foal/d ± SEM; p < 0.0001), observations of aggression (2.4 ± 0.27 versus 7.6 ± 0.52 observations/foal/d ± SEM; p < 0.0001), and distance travelled (1275 ± 150 versus 4679 ± 497 m/d ± SEM; p < 0.0001). Prior to treatment, foals lay 34.91 ± 12.4 min/bout in 8 ± 3.4 bouts/d. During nutritional separation, control foals lay down more than TS foals (p < 0.0031). There was no treatment effect on lying duration (p > 0.75) or number of lying bouts (p > 0.17) upon physical separation, but lying time was significantly less in all foals (p < 0.01). Prior to treatment, mares lay an average of 14.16 ± 11.21 min/bout in 2 ± 1.7 bouts/d. Mares displayed no difference in lying duration or number of lying bouts between treatments (p > 0.99) or upon physical separation (p > 0.37). Two-stage mares vocalized less frequently than control mares upon physical separation (7.6 ± 0.6 versus 12.6 ± 0.9 vocalizations/mare/d ± SEM; p < 0.0001). Fecal cortisol concentrations increased in both mares and foals upon physical separation (146 ± 13.5 versus 193 ± 21.9 ng/ml ± SEM; p < 0.0032). Although some minor reductions in stress response were achieved by use of a two-stage approach to weaning, these results more clearly show the effect on mares and foals to physical separation. Large variation in both behavioural and physiological responses to stress may indicate a role of personality and attachment theory in effective approaches to weaning.

View all citing articles on Scopus

View full text

Equine behaviour: I. A review of the literature on social and dam—Foal behaviour

Abstract

Appl. Anim. Ethol.

Br. J. Anim. Behav.

Anim. Behav.

Appl. Anim. Ethol.

Appl. Anim. Ethol.

Appl. Anim. Ethol.

Appl. Anim. Ethol.

Appl. Anim. Ethol.

behaviour. Br. Vet. J.

Appl. Anim. Ethol.

Appl. Anim. Ethol.

Br. J. Anim. Behav.

On the geographical distribution in former times and today of the recent Equidae

Grazing patterns of horses

Br. Vet. J.

Studies on the products of fermentation in the faeces of foals

Allatenyesztes

Breeding horses for milk under conditions in Kazakhstan

Abstract in Anim. Breed. Abstr.

Organisational systems and dominance in feral horses in the Grand Canyon

Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol.

Dynamics of the mother newborn relationship in goats

Group Processes

Composition and production of milk from Dutch warmblooded saddle horse mares

Z. Tierphysiol. Tierernaehr. Futtermittelkd.

Time-budgets of Camargue horses. I. Developmental changes in the time budgets of foals

Behav.

The nursing behaviour of thoroughbred foals

Equine Vet. J.

Ranks and relationships in Highland ponies and Highland cows

Z. Tierpsychol.

The sexual and social behaviour of the Connemara pony

Br. Vet. J.

Observations of equine animals under farm and feral conditions

Equine Vet. J.

Some observations on an orphan foal

Br. Vet. J.

Time budgets of Camargue horses. II. Time budgets of adult horses and weaned sub-adults

Behaviour

Verhaltensweisen von Islandpferden in einem nordeutschen Freigelande

Saugetierk. Mitt.

Behaviour of feral horses in the Pryor Mountain Wild Horse Range

Reproduction in feral horses

J. Reprod. Fertil., Suppl.

Behaviour patterns and communication in feral horses

Z. Tierpsychol.

The nursing behaviour of foals

Studies on the feeding and social behaviour of domestic horses

Coprophagia as seen in thoroughbred foals

Equine Vet. J.

Reproductive Behaviour in Ungulates

Farm Animal Behaviour

The appraisal of vital behaviour in the neonate foal

A study of the home ranges of free-ranging Exmoor ponies

Mammal Rev.

A system of rearing foals on an automatic calf machine

Equine Vet. J.

The behaviour of sucking foals

Br. Vet. J.

Rangordnungversuche mit Pferden

Z. Tierpsychol.

The behaviour of cattle

Avoidance, maze learning and social dominance in ponies

J. Anim. Sci.

Horse behaviour: its relevancy to the equine practitioner

J. Equine Med. Surg.

A plea for behavioural studies of domestic animals

The position of the stallion in equine social organisation

J. Anim. Sci.

The stability of equine hierarchies and the prevention of dominance-related aggression

Equine Vet. J.

The effect of management practices on horse behaviour